Assembly and use of a low-cost paracentesis simulator for the teaching of puncture and drainage of ascites / Montagem e uso de simulador de paracentese de baixo custo - aplicabilidade no ensino de punção e drenagem de ascite

ABSTRACT Objectives: to describe the assembly of a low-cost paracentesis simulator and evaluate its effectiveness, acceptance and impact on the learning of medical students. Methodology: a paracentesis simulator was built using a mannequin and materials such as plastic bottles, Velcro, polyvinyl chloride sheets and silicone were used. A cross-sectional and experimental study was carried out with undergraduate medical students without previous practical experience with paracentesis, which sought to validate the model, evaluating its benefits in learning and obtaining technical skills. Results: after using the simulator there was an increase of 82.4% in the level of confidence in performing paracentesis in a patient, with 98% of respondents considering that the model fulfilled the simulator function with satisfaction, and 100% considering it useful as a teaching tool. Conclusion: the built simulator was effective as an educational resource, serving as an alternative to high-cost commercial models, allowing for greater accessibility in the use of this tool in medical education.

RESUMO Objetivos: descrever a montagem de simulador de paracentese de baixo custo e avaliar eficácia, aceitação e impacto no aprendizado de acadêmicos do curso de medicina. Método: um simulador de paracentese foi construído a partir de manequim e de materiais como garrafas plásticas, velcro, folhas de policloreto de vinila e silicone. Foi feito estudo transversal com estudantes da graduação do curso de medicina sem experiência real prévia com paracentese, que buscou validar o modelo, por meio da análise de benefícios no aprendizado e na obtenção de habilidades técnicas. Resultados: após o uso do simulador, observou-se aumento de 82,4% no nível de segurança na realização da paracentese em paciente, 98% dos pesquisados consideraram que o uso do modelo cumpriu com satisfação a função de simulador e 100% definiram-no útil como ferramenta de ensino. Conclusão: a montagem do simulador mostrou-se factível e eficaz como recurso educacional. Serviu como alternativa aos modelos comerciais de alto custo e permitiu maior acessibilidade do uso dessa ferramenta na educação médica.

Impacto respiratório e sintomatológico do alívio da ascite através da paracentese em pacientes com cirrose hepática / Respiratory and symptomatic impact of ascites relief by paracentesis in patients with hepatic cirrhosis

ABSTRACT BACKGROUND: Liver cirrhosis is a highly prevalent disease that, at an advanced stage, usually causes ascites and associated respiratory changes. However, there are few studies evaluating and quantifying the impact of ascites and its relief through paracentesis on lung function and symptoms such as fatigue and dyspnea in cirrhotic patients. OBJECTIVE: To assess and quantify the impact of acute reduction of ascitic volume on respiratory parameters, fatigue and dyspnea symptoms in patients with hepatic cirrhosis, as well as to investigate possible correlations between these parameters. METHODS: Thirty patients with hepatic cirrhosis and ascites who underwent the following pre and post paracentesis evaluations: vital signs, respiratory pattern, thoracoabdominal mobility (cirtometry), pulmonary function (ventilometry), degree of dyspnea (numerical scale) and fatigue level (visual analog scale). RESULTS: There was a higher prevalence of patients classified as CHILD B and the mean MELD score was 14.73±5.75. The comparison of pre and post paracentesis parameters evidenced after paracentesis: increase of predominantly abdominal breathing pattern, improvement of ventilatory variables, increase of the differences obtained in axillary and abdominal cirtometry, reduction of dyspnea and fatigue level, blood pressure reduction and increased peripheral oxygen saturation. Positive correlations found: xiphoid with axillary cirtometry, degree of dyspnea with fatigue level, tidal volume with minute volume, Child "C" with higher MELD score, volume drained in paracentesis with higher MELD score and with Child "C". We also observed a negative correlation between tidal volume and respiratory rate. CONCLUSION: Since ascites drainage in patients with liver cirrhosis improves pulmonary volumes and thoracic expansion as well as reduces symptoms such as fatigue and dyspnea, we can conclude that ascites have a negative respiratory and symptomatological impact in these patients.

RESUMO CONTEXTO: A cirrose hepática é uma doença altamente prevalente que, em estágio avançado, geralmente causa ascite e alterações respiratórias associadas. No entanto, existem poucos estudos avaliando e quantificando o impacto da ascite e do seu alívio através da paracentese na função pulmonar e em sintomas como fadiga e dispneia em pacientes cirróticos. OBJETIVO: Avaliar e quantificar o impacto da redução aguda do volume ascítico nos parâmetros respiratórios, sintomas de fadiga e dispneia em pacientes com cirrose hepática, bem como investigar possíveis correlações entre esses parâmetros. MÉTODOS: Trinta pacientes com cirrose hepática e ascite foram submetidos às seguintes avaliações pré e pós-paracentese: sinais vitais, padrão respiratório, mobilidade toracoabdominal (cirtometria), função pulmonar (ventilometria), grau de dispneia (escala numérica) e nível de fadiga (escala visual analógica). RESULTADOS: Houve maior prevalência de pacientes classificados como CHILD B e o escore MELD médio foi de 14,73±5,75. A comparação dos parâmetros pré e pós paracentese evidenciou após a paracentese: aumento do padrão respiratório predominantemente abdominal, melhora das variáveis ventilatórias, aumento das diferenças obtidas na cirtometria axilar e abdominal, redução do nível de dispneia e fadiga, redução da pressão arterial e aumento da saturação periférica de oxigênio. Correlações positivas encontradas: cirtometria xifoide com axilar, grau de dispneia com nível de fadiga, volume corrente com volume minuto, CHILD "C" com maior escore MELD, volume drenado na paracentese com maior escore MELD e com CHILD "C". Também observamos uma correlação negativa entre volume corrente e a frequência respiratória. CONCLUSÃO: Uma vez que a drenagem da ascite em pacientes com cirrose hepática melhora os volumes pulmonares e a expansão torácica, além de reduzir sintomas como fadiga e dispneia, podemos concluir que a ascite tem um impacto respiratório e sintomatológico negativo nesses pacientes.

Hidrotórax hepático: presentación de 3 casos con diferentes enfoques terapéuticos / Hepatic hydrothorax: presentation of 3 cases with different therapeutic approaches

El hidrotórax hepático (HH) se define como un derrame pleural mayor de 500 ml en pacientes con cirrosis e hipertensión portal. Representa una complicación infrecuente por lo general asociada con ascitis y su origen se relaciona con el paso de líquido ascítico a través de pequeños defectos en el diafragma de predominio en el hemitórax derecho. Una vez establecido el diagnóstico por imágenes, la toracentesis diagnostica permite confirmar un trasudado. La terapia inicial está basada en la restricción de sodio y el uso combinado de diuréticos. El 20-25% de los pacientes desarrolla un HH refractario, el cual requiere intervenciones invasivas tales como la derivación percutánea portosistémica intrahepática (DPPI), la reparación de los defectos diafragmáticos por videotoracoscopia asistida asociada a pleurodésis química y el uso de un catéter pleural tunelizado. No se recomienda la inserción de un tubo de tórax por su elevada morbilidad y mortalidad. El tratamiento definitivo del HH es el trasplante hepático el cual alcanza una excelente sobrevida. Presentamos tres casos de hidrotórax hepático con diferentes enfoques terapéuticos que incluyeron el manejo conservador con dieta y diuréticos, la inserción fallida de un tubo de tórax con pleurodesis y una DPPI.

Hepatic hydrothorax is uncommon transudative pleural effusion greater than 500 ml in association with cirrhosis and portal hypertension. Ascites is also present in most of the patients and the pathophysiology include the passage of ascites fluid through small diaphragmatic defects. After diagnostic thoracentesis studies, the first line management is restricting sodium intake and diuretics combination including stepwise dose of spironolactone plus furosemide. Therapeutic thoracentesis is a simple and effective procedure to relief dyspnea. Hepatic hydrothorax is refractory in approximately 20-25% and treatments options include repeated thoracentesis, transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunts (TIPS) placement, chemical pleurodesis with repair diaphragmatic defects using video-assisted thoracoscopy surgery (VATS), and insertion of an indwelling pleural catheter. Chest tube insertion carries significant morbidity and mortality with questionable benefit. Hepatic transplantation remains the best treatment option with long term survival. We present three cases of hepatic hydrothorax with different therapeutic approach including first line management, failed chest tube insertion and TIPS placement.

A Randomized Controlled Trial of Procedural Techniques for Large Volume Paracentesis

ABSTRACT Introduction. The aim of this study is to investigate large volume therapeutic paracentesis using either a z-tract or axial (coxial) technique in a randomized controlled trial. Materials and methods. In this randomized, single blind study, patients with cirrhosis undergoing outpatient therapeutic paracentesis were randomized to the z-tract or the modified angular (coaxial) needle insertion technique. Subject and procedure characteristics were compared between the groups with ascites leakage as quantified by need for dressing changes with standardized sized gauze pads as a primary endpoint and subject procedural discomfort, operator preference, and procedure complications as secondary endpoints. Results. 72 paracenteses were performed during the study period: 34 to the z-tract and 38 to the coaxial insertion technique. Following exclusions, a total of 61 paracenteses were analyzed: 30 using the z-tract technique and 31 using the coaxial technique. There were equal rates of post-procedural leakage of ascites between groups (13% in both groups, p = 1.00). Using the visual analog scale (0 - 100), there was a statistically significant increase in the subject reported pain score with the z-tract compared with the coaxial method [26.4 (95% CI 18.7 - 34.1) vs. 17.2 (95% CI 10.6 - 23.8), p = 0.04]. Mean physician rated procedure difficulty (1 - 5) was significantly higher for the z-tract vs. the coaxial technique [2.1 (95% CI 1.6 - 2.6) vs. 1.5 (95% CI 1.2 - 1.8), p = 0.04]. Conclusion. When compared to the z-tract technique, the coaxial insertion technique is superior during large volume paracentesis in cirrhosis patients.

Evaluación de la realización de paracentesis en pacientes cirróticos ingresados a dos servicios de medicina interna de hospitales mediana complejidad / Assessment of the fulfillment of paracentesis in cirrotic patients admited in two services of internal medicine in hospitals of median complexity

La peritonitis bacteriana espontánea (PBE) es una complicación severa de la cirrosis hepática (CH). Su pronóstico depende del momento de inicio de la terapia para lo que se requiere un diagnóstico oportuno. Objetivo: Evaluar la realización de paracentesis diagnóstica (PD) en cirróticos con ascitis durante su hospitalización. Materiales y métodos: Estudio observacional, analítico y prospectivo, realizado en un período de 11 meses consecutivos. Resultados: Se registraron 92 ingresos, el promedio de edad fue de 60,3 años (DE 11,7), correspondiendo un 57,6% a hombres, la etiología de CH más frecuente fue alcohólica (48,9%). Se realizaron 40 PD (43,5%), de ellas 35% con PBE positiva. Del total de PD, un 47,5% se efectuaron al ingreso y/o al presentar signos de alarma. El promedio de días de hospitalización fue mayor en aquellos en que se realizó la PD tardíamente. El MELD (Model for the End stage Liver Disease) tanto al ingreso como egreso es significativamente mayor en los pacientes puncionados al ingreso. Conclusión: Se realiza PD en menos de la mitad de los cirróticos hospitalizados, siendo su realización oportuna solo en 1 de cada 5 de los ingresos. El realizar PD en el momento adecuado disminuye los días de hospitalización y morbimortalidad.

The Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis (SBP) is a severe complication of cirrhosis. The prognosis depends on the time of initiation of therapy that is required for early diagnosis. Objective: To evaluate the performance of diagnostic paracentesis (DP) in cirrhotic patients with ascites during hospitalization. Materials and methods: An observational, analytical, prospective, study conducted during October 2009 to June 2010. Results: There were 92 income, average age was 60.3 years (SD 11.7), corresponding to 57.6% men, the most common etiology of CH was alcohol (48.9%). There were 40 PD (43.5%), of which 35% positive SBP. Of the DP, 47.5% were performed on admission and / or submission of warning signs. The average period of hospitalization was higher in those who underwent late DP. The MELD score both at admission and discharge was significantly higher in patients on admission punctured. Conclusion: DP was done in less than half of hospitalized cirrhotic, and its timely completion only 1 in 5 of revenues. The DP perform at the right time reduces hospital days.

Ascite: diagnóstico diferencial e manejo / Ascites: differential diagnosis and management

Os autores realizaram uma prática e objetiva revisão sobre ascite, destacando aspectos como definição, etiologia, diagnóstico, paracentese, análise do líquido ascítico e manejo. O objetivo é auxiliar o profissional da saúde na rápida identificação da patologia relacionada à ascite e definir o tratamento mais adequado dos pacientes, principalmente cirróticos.

The authors conducted a quickly and practice review about ascites, targeting aspects such as definition, etiology, diagnosis, paracentesis, ascitic fluid analysis and management. The goal is to assist healthcare professionals in the early identification of disease and appropriate treatment of patients with ascites, especially cirrhosis.

Albumin for End-Stage Liver Disease

Albumin has been widely used in patients with cirrhosis in an attempt to improve circulatory and renal functions. The benefits of albumin infusions in preventing the deterioration in renal function associated with large-volume paracentesis, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, and established hepatorenal syndrome in conjunction with a vasoconstrictor are well established. While some of these indications are supported by the results of randomized studies, others are based only on clinical experience and have not been proved in prospective studies. The paucity of well-designed trials, the high cost of albumin, the lack of a clear-cut survival benefit, and fear of transmitting unknown infections make the use of albumin controversial. The recent development of the molecular adsorbent recirculating system, an albumin dialysis, is an example of the capacity of albumin to act by mechanisms other than its oncotic effect. Efforts should be made to define the indications for albumin use, the dose required, and predictors of response, so that patients gain the maximum benefit from its administration.

Manejo de ascitis refractaria e hiponatremia dilucional en pacientes con cirrosis / Management of refractory ascites and dilutional hyponatremia in cirrhotic patient

Ascites and dilutional hyponatremia are frequent conditions in cirrhotic patients and its occurrence has a worse prognosis. Thus, patients with ascites should generally be considered for referral for liver transplantation. The present article explores issues related with ascites classification and the treatment corresponding to each of the 3 degrees of ascites. Regarding refractory ascites, recommendations are included on the use of diuretics, large volume paracentesis with the administration of intravenous albumin and use of transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS). Finally, physiopathological aspects involved in the development of dilutional hyponatremia and vaptans treatment, are presented, which are aquaretics that selectively blockade vasopressin V2 receptors in the principal cells of the collecting ducts, being one of the most innovative pharmacological interventions for the management of hyponatremia in cirrhotic patients, in the recent years.

La ascitis e hiponatremia dilucional son complicaciones frecuentes en pacientes con cirrosis avanzada y su aparición implica un peor pronóstico. Por ello, los pacientes con ascitis deberían ser referidos para trasplante hepático. El presente artículo explora los aspectos relacionados con la clasificación de la ascitis y el tratamiento correspondiente a cada uno de los 3 grados de ascitis. En relación al manejo de la ascitis refractaria, se incluyen recomendaciones respecto a la eficacia del uso de diuréticos, paracentesis evacuadora radical con reposición de albúmina intravenosa y uso de cortocircuito porto-sistémico intrahepático (TIPS). Finalmente, se abordan los aspectos fisiopatológicos involucrados en el desarrollo de hiponatremia dilucional y el tratamiento con vaptanes, que son acuaréticos que bloquean selectivamente los receptores V2 de vasopresina en las células principales del túbulo colector, constituyendo una de las intervenciones farmacológicas más innovadoras en el manejo de la hiponatremia en cirrosis en los últimos años.

Ascite cirrótica: aspectos clínicos / Cirrhotic ascites: clinical aspects

A ascite é a mais comum das três complicações da cirrose. A sua presença é indicativo de mau prognóstico, e está associada a complicações que aumentam a morbidade e a mortalidade. O gradiente de albumina sérico-ascítico é o método utilizado para se fazer o diagnóstico diferencial da ascite associada à hipertensão portal daquela de outra etiologia. A patogênese da ascite cirrótica revela primordialmente dois fatores: alterações na hemodinâmica portal e retenção de sódio e água. A teoria que explica a formação da ascite e as alterações hemodinâmicas na cirrose é a da vasodilatação. Esta vasodilatação é associada às altas concentrações de substâncias como o óxido nítrico dentre outras. O tratamento da ascite consiste na restrição de sódio, diuréticos orais, paracentese abdominal, derivação peritoneovenosa, TIPS e transplante de fígado.

Ascites is the most common of the three major complications of cirrhosis (the others complications are hepatic encephalopathy and visceral haemorrhage). Its presence is an indicative sign of poor prognosis, predisposing the patient to many complications which increase morbidity and death rate. The serum-ascites albumin gradient is the method which you can differentiate ascites caused by portal hypertension from others etiologies. In ascites pathogenesis there are two factors to be considered: The portal hemodynamic and the sodium and water retainers. The theory which explains the ascites formation and the hemodynamics alterations in cirrhosis is the vasodilatation one. The vasodilatation would be secondary to high serum concentrations of vasodilators, including nitric oxide and others. The treatment of ascites in cirrhotic patients includes clinical and surgical procedures like saline restriction, oral diuretics, abdominal paracentesis, peritoneovenousderivation, TIPS, and liver transplantation.

El impacto de las complicaciones y los tratamientos sobre los cambios cardiovasculares en la cirrosis: [revisión] / The cirrhotic heart: cirrhotic cardiomyopathy and circulatory derangement: [review]

En tiempos recientes, la miocardiopatía cirrótica ha pasado a ser considerada una nueva entidad clínica. El reconocimiento de cambios leves en la estructura cardíaca que pueden ser detectados incluso en las etapas iniciales de la cirrosis preascítica ha contribuido a una mejor comprensión de los trastornos cardiovasculares que se observan a medida que progresa la enfermedad. Se han categorizado cambios cardíacos estructurales y se diagnóstica, con frecuencia, la disfunción diastólica. La cirrosis descompensada se caracteriza por una disminución de la presión sanguínea y de la resistencia vascular periférica, y un aumento del gasto cardíaco y de la frecuencia cardíaca, los cuales se producen en un escenario de circulación hiperdinámica favorecida por la expansión del volumen total sanguíneo, la sobrecarga circulatoria y la hiperactividad de los sistemas endógenos vasoactivos. La vasodilatación periférica evita la insuficiencia cardíaca. Recientemente se ha reconocido la existencia de una menor respuesta cardíaca en situaciones de estrés como son los cambios en las condiciones de la carga cardíaca en presencia de un mayor deterioro de la función hepática, tales como la ascitis refractaria, el síndrome hepatorrenal, la peritonitis bacteriana espontánea y la hemorragia de várices esofágicas. Ante la disponibilidad de intervenciones terapéuticas (paracentesis, comunicación portosistémica intrahepática transyugular, comunicación venosa peritoneal, trasplante hepático) utilizadas actualmente para manejar las complicaciones potencialmente mortalesen las formas más avanzadas de cirrosis, el conocimiento del impacto que tienen en la función cardiovascular es de suma importancia. Se encuentran en progreso las intervenciones terapéuticas dirigidas a prevenir y manejar el deterioro cardiovascular.

Randomized trial comparing human albumin and hydroxyethyl starch 6% as plasma expanders for treatment of patients with liver cirrhosis and tense ascites following large volume paracentesis

Cirrhosis is the commonest cause of ascites accounting for almost 85% of all cases. Approximately 10% of patients with cirrhosis develop diuretic-resistant tense ascites that requires other therapeutic interventions. Large-volume paracentestis with plasma expander infusion, mainly albumin, has been used for the management of ascites in cirrhotic patients. We aimed at investigating whether human albumin can be substituted by a less expensive plasma expander, hydroxyethyl starch 6% following paracentesis. One- hundred and thirty-five patients [60% who cirrhosis and schistosomal perioportal fibrosis combined, 26.7% with postheraptitic cirrhosis and 13.3% with schistosomal periportal librosis] with tense ascites were randomized to treatment by one-session of a nearly-total paracentesis plus intravenous human albumin [68 patients] or hydroxyethyl starch 6% [67 patients]. These were given at a dose of 8 g/l of ascetic fluid removed. The two groups were compared for incidence of complications, recurrence of massive ascites after hospital dismissal and survival rate. Both groups showed no significant changes in renal of hepatic function or serum electrolytes. The incidence of complications following paracentesis was similar in both groups. The number of readmissions during follow up and causes of readmission and survival were also comparable. The effect of paracentesis on the effective intravascular volume was indirectly assessed by plasma rennin activity and plasma aldosterone concentration before treatment, 2 and 6 days after treatment. None of the mean values of these changed significantly in the two groups after paracentesis. Postparacentesis transient hypotension was observed more in the hydroxyethyl starch 6% group than in those treated with albumin [23.9% versus 8.8%, p=0.018]. Hydroxyethyl starch 6% is safe and as effective as human in protecting patients treated with nearly-total paracentesis from developing renal and electrolyte complications. Transient hypotension following paracentesis was, however, commoner in the hydroxeyethyl starch group

Frequency of peritoneal infections among patients undergoing continuous paracentesis with an indwelling catheter

Ascites is a common clinical manifestation of advanced liver disease which can be managed with repeated large volume paracentesis. We sought to determine if continuous paracentesis via placement of an indwelling catheter for the management of ascites is safe and effective. We placed 38 peritoneal drainage catheters in 30 patients for durations ranging from 1-10 days. Patients underwent ascites fluid culture and cell count determinations immediately before and after the completion of paracentesis. Serum WBC count, BUN and creatinine levels were available on all patients before and after paracentesis. The descriptive data were analysed to assess the rate of peritoneal infections, change in renal function and ultimate clinical outcome of patients. A mean 12.73 litres of peritoneal fluid was removed via continuous peritoneal drainage accomplished with the use of an indwelling abdominal catheter. Eight peritoneal cultures obtained after paracentesis grew out. The mean peritoneal cell count before and after paracentesis in each subject did not show evidence for spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. Five patients underwent successful liver transplantation [OLTX] and did not develop any peritoneal infections post OLTX. Continuous large volume paracentesis using an indwelling abdominal catheter for several days is effective in removing large volumes of peritoneal fluid in patients with endstage-liver-disease [ESLD]. The peritoneal fluid can grow out bacteria if it is left in the abdomen for >/= 3 days

Tratamento de hidrotórax com shunt portossistêmico transjugular intra-hepático (TIPS) / Treatment of hydrothorax with transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS)

O hidrotórax hepático caracteriza-se pelo derrame pleural secundário a ascite volumosa em pacientes com cirrose descompensada. É complicação rara em hepatopatas com hipertensão portal e de difícil reversão com o manejo clínico convencional para o tratamento da ascite. A introdução do shunt portossistêmico transjugular intra-hepático (TIPS) como opção terapêutica para esses pacientes mostrou-se procedimento bastante eficaz e com pequena morbidade associada. O objetivo deste trabalho é relatar o caso de uma paciente hepatopata crônica, com ascite volumosa e hidrotórax refratários ao tratamento clínico, a qual foi submetida à colocação de TIPS para tratamento. Pacientes com cirrose descompensada e ascite são candidatos a complicações como peritonite bacteriana espontânea, síndrome hepatorrenal e hidrotórax. O tratamento definitivo nestes casos é o transplante hepático – nem sempre viável e de rápido acesso. O TIPS é opção terapêutica temporária e de baixo risco para esses pacientes e que vem mostrando altas taxas de sucesso.

Liver hydrothorax is characterized by pleural effusion secondary to voluminous ascites in patients with uncompensated cirrhosis. It is a rare complication in hepatopaths with portal hypertension, one not easily reverted through the standard clinical management for the treatment of ascites. The introduction of transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS) as a therapeutic option for these patients proved to be quite efficacious and with little associated morbidity. The aim of this work is to report the case of a chronic female hepatopath with voluminous ascites and hydrothorax refractory to clinical treatment, who was submitted to TIPS. Patients with uncompensated cirrhosis and ascites are candidates to complications such as spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, hepatorenal syndrome, and hydrothorax. Definitive treatment in these cases is the hepatic transplant – not always viable and easily accessed. TIPS is the temporary, low-risk therapeutic option for such patients, which has shown high rates of success.

Ascite: estado da arte baseado em evidências: [revisão] / Ascite: state of the art based on evidences: [review]

A ascite é o acúmulo de líquido livre de origem patológica na cavidade abdominal, fenômeno presente em várias doenças da prática clínica. A doença mais associada com ascite é a cirrose hepática. Na sua fisiopatologia destacam-se três teorias que ocorrem sempre em determinado paciente, porém em momentos diferentes de sua doença: vasodilatação, "overflow" e "underfill". O conceito mais moderno sugere que as três teorias estão presentes no mesmo paciente com cirrose, dependendo do tempo de evolução de sua doença. A teoria da vasodilatação estaria presente desde a fase pré-ascítica até a ascite de longa data. A teoria do overflow seria predominante nos primeiros meses de ascite e a teoria underfill explicaria a maioria dos achados em pacientes com ascite por longo tempo. Neste artigo são comentadas em detalhes as várias doenças que produzem ascite, os métodos diagnósticos empregados na pesquisa clínica da ascite, as complicações da ascite e as opções terapêuticas disponíveis. Em cada item é mostrado o grau de evidência (A até C) presente na literatura médica.

The accumulation of free fluid of pathological origin in the peritoneal cavity is named ascites, and, in clinical practice this phenomenon is present in several diseases. The most common cause of ascites is liver cirrhosis. In the pathophysiology of ascites three theories are noteworthy: vasodilation, overflow and underfill. The modern concept suggest that these three theories are present in the same patient with cirrhosis depending on the disease evolution time. The vasodilation theory would be important in the pre-ascitic phase as well as during all the ascites evolution time. The overflow theory would be important in the first months of development of ascites in cirrhosis, and the underfill theory would explain most of the findings in patients with ascites for a long time. This article comments in detailed, several diseases that produce ascites, the diagnostic methods employed in clinical investigation of ascites' complication and therapeutics options available. In each item the evidence grade (A to C) found in medical literature is shown.